What Is the Eye of the Sahara

The Blue Eye of the Sahara, also known as the Richat Structure or the Guelb er Richat, is a geological formation in the Sahara Desert that resembles an enormous bullseye. The formation stretches  across a 40 kilometer-wide region of the desert in the nation of Mauritania.   Key Takeaways: The Eye of the Sahara The Eye of the Sahara, also known as the Richat Structure, is a geologic dome containing rocks that predate the appearance of life on Earth.  The Eye resembles a blue bullseye and is located in Western Sahara. It is visible from space and has been used as a visual landmark by astronauts.  Geologists believe that the Eyes formation began when the supercontinent Pangaea started to pull apart.   For centuries, only a few local nomadic tribes knew about the formation. It was first photographed in the 1960s by the  Gemini astronauts, who used it as a landmark  to track the progress of their landing sequences.  Later,  the Landsat satellite  took additional images and provided information about the size, height, and extent of the formation. Geologists originally believed that Eye of the Sahara was an impact crater, created when an object from space slammed into the surface. However, lengthy studies of the rocks inside the structure show that its origins are entirely Earth-based. A Unique Geological Wonder Geologists have concluded that the Eye of the Sahara is a geologic dome. The formation contains rocks that are at least 100 million years old; some date back to well before the appearance of life on Earth. These rocks include igneous (volcanic) deposits  as well as sedimentary layers that form as the wind pushes layers of dust and water deposits sand and mud. Today, geologists can find several types of igneous rock in the area of the eye, including kimberlite,  carbonatites, black basalts (similar to what can be seen in the Big Island of Hawaii), and rhyolites. Millions of years ago, volcanic activity from deep beneath Earths surface lifted  the entire landscape around the Eye. These regions were not deserts, as they are today. Instead, they were likely much more temperate, with abundant flowing water.  Layered sandstone rocks were deposited by blowing winds and on the bottoms of lakes and rivers during the temperate. The subsurface volcanic flow eventually pushed up the overlying layers of sandstone and other rocks. After the volcanism died down, wind and water erosion began to eat away at the domed layers of rock. The region began to settle down and collapse in on itself, creating the roughly circular eye feature. Traces of Pangaea The ancient rocks within the Eye of the Sahara have provided researchers with information about its origins. The earliest formation of the Eye began when the supercontinent Pangaea  began to pull apart. As Pangaea broke up, the Atlantic Ocean waters began to flow into the region.   While Pangaea was slowly pulling apart, magma from deep beneath the surface began to push up from the Earths mantle, which  formed a circle-shaped rocky dome surrounded by layers of sandstone. As erosion took its toll on the igneous rocks and sandstones, and as the dome subsided, circular ridges were left behind, giving the Richat Structure its sunken circular shape. Today, the eye is somewhat sunken below the level of the surrounding landscapes.   Seeing the Eye Western Sahara no longer has the temperate conditions that existed during the Eyes formation. However, it is possible to visit the dry, sandy desert that the Eye of the Sahara calls home—but its not a luxurious trip. Travelers must first gain access to a Mauritanian visa and find a local sponsor. Once admitted, tourists are advised to make local travel arrangements. Some entrepreneurs offer airplane rides or hot air balloon trips over the Eye, giving visitors a birds-eye view. The Eye is located near the town of Oudane, which is a car ride away from the structure, and there is even a hotel inside the Eye.   The Future of the Eye The Eye of the Sahara  attracts both tourists and geologists, who  flock to the Eye to study the unique geological feature in person.  However, because the Eye is located in a sparsely inhabited region of the desert with very little water or rainfall, it is not under much threat from humans. That leaves the Eye open to the vagaries of nature. The ongoing effects of erosion threaten the landscape, just as they do other places on the planet. Desert winds may well bring more dunes to the region, particularly as climate change causes increased desertification in the area. Its quite possible that, in the distant future, the Eye of the Sahara will be inundated with sand and dust. Future travelers may find only a windswept desert burying one of the most striking geological features on the planet.

The Divine Comedy Inferno Ira - 2454 Words

The Divine Comedy: Inferno IRA by Dante Alighieri Summary: (Exposition) Midway through his life, Dante finds himself lost from his true way, wandering through a dark and savage forest. He finds a mountain, after which a divine light shines upon him, encouraging him to go up it. But he is stopped by three malicious creatures and is only saved when a man finds him. The man identifies himself to Dante as Virgil (a great Roman poet), and reveals that his lost love Beatrice (and two others) has wished for God to grant Dante a journey through heaven and hell (so that he can be redeemed). Dante eagerly accepts the path he has been given, and heads out with Virgil (who he greatly admires). (Rising Action) After crossing paths with the Muses, Dante and Virgil reach the gates of hell, upon which is an inscription that reads â€Å"All hope abandon, ye who enter in!† The two press onward through the gates, where they reach the Ante-Inferno (Within Hell, but not a true part of it), which is reserved for the souls that failed to make moral choices in life (but did not sin) and were not truly good or evil. These souls are condemned to spend eternity chasing after a blank banner, while maggots bite them, which Dante finds himself to pity their suffering. Further into the realm, the protagonist and his guide reach the river Acheron, where souls go to cross into hell. They are transported by an entity known as Charon (clearly the one taken from Greek Mythology), who serves as a ferry driver intoShow MoreRelatedThe 7 Deadly Sins and 7 Cardinal Virtues2779 Words   |  12 Pagesfirst letters in Latin of the seven deadly sins: superbia, avaritia, luxuria, invidia, gula, ira , acedia. Listed in the same order used by both Pope Gregory the Great in the 6th Century AD, and later by Dante Alighieri in his epic poem The Divine Comedy, the Seven deadly sins are as follows: (7) Luxuria (extravagance, later lust); (6) Gula (gluttony); (5) Avaritia (greed); (4) Acedia (sloth); (3) Ira (wrath); (2) Invidia (envy); and (1) Superbia (pride). Each of The Seven Deadly SinsRead MoreBob Ong1985 Words   |  8 PagesPurgatory, the punishment for the envious is to have their eyes sewn shut with wire because they have gained sinful pleasure from seeing others brought low. Aquinas described envy as sorrow for anothers good.[11] Chapter 2: Geran - Anger(Latin, ira), also known as anger or rage, may be described as inordinate and uncontrolled feelings of hatred and anger. Anger, in its purest form, presents with self-destructiveness, violence, and hate that may provoke feuds that can go on for centuries. Anger

What Is Coevolution Definition and Examples

Coevolution refers to evolution that occurs among interdependent species as a result of specific interactions. That is, adaptations occurring in one species spur reciprocal adaptations in another species or multiple species. Coevolutionary processes are important in ecosystems as these types of interactions shape relationships among organisms at various trophic levels in communities. Key Takeaways Coevolution involves reciprocal adaptive changes that occur among interdependent species.Antagonistic relationships, mutualistic relationships, and commensalistic relationships in communities promote coevolution.Coevolutionary antagonistic interactions are observed in predator-prey and host-parasite relationships.Coevolutionary mutualistic interactions involve the development of mutually beneficial relationships between species.Coevolutionary commensalistic interactions include relationships where one species benefits while the other is not harmed. Batesian mimicry is one such example. While Darwin described coevolution processes in plant-pollinator relationships in 1859, Paul Ehrlich and Peter Raven are credited as the first to introduce the term coevolution in their 1964 paper Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution. In this study, Ehrlich and Raven proposed that plants produce noxious chemicals to prevent insects from eating their leaves, while certain butterfly species developed adaptations that allowed them to neutralize the toxins and feed on the plants. In this relationship, an evolutionary arms race was occurring in which each species was applying selective evolutionary pressure on the other that influenced adaptations in both species. Community Ecology Interactions among biological organisms in ecosystems or biomes determine the types of communities in specific habitats. The food chains and food webs that develop in a community help to drive coevolution among species. As species compete for resources in an environment, they experience natural selection and the pressure to adapt to survive. Several types of symbiotic relationships in communities promote coevolution in ecosystems. These relationships include antagonistic relationships, mutualistic relationships, and commensalistic relationships. In antagonistic relationships, organisms compete for survival in an environment. Examples include predator-prey relationships and parasite-host relationships. In mutualistic coevolutionary interactions, both species develop adaptations for the benefit of both organisms. In commensalistic interactions, one species benefits from the relationship while the other is not harmed. Antagonist Interactions Female leopard stalking prey in tall grass. Eastcott Momatiuk/The Image Bank/Getty Images Plus Coevolutionary antagonistic interactions are observed in predator-prey and host-parasite relationships. In predator-prey relationships, prey develop adaptations to avoid predators and predators acquire additional adaptations in turn. For example, predators that ambush their prey have color adaptations that help them to blend into their environment. They also have heightened senses of smell and vision to accurately locate their prey. Prey that evolve to develop heightened visual senses or the ability to detect small changes in air flow are more likely to spot predators and avoid their ambush attempt. Both predator and prey must continue to adapt to improve their chances for survival. In host-parasite coevolutionary relationships, a parasite develops adaptations to overcome a hosts defenses. In turn, the host develops new defenses to overcome the parasite. An example of this type of relationship is evidenced in the relationship between Australian rabbit populations and the myxoma virus. This virus was used in an attempt to control the rabbit population in Australia in the 1950s. Initially, the virus was highly effective in destroying rabbits. Over time, the wild rabbit population experienced genetic changes and developed resistance to the virus. The lethality of the virus changed from high, to low, to intermediate. These changes are thought to reflect the coevolutionary changes between the virus and rabbit population. Mutualistic Interactions The coevolution between fig wasps and figs has become so profound that neither organism can exist without the other. Encyclopaedia Britannica/UIG/Getty Images Plus Coevolutionary mutualistic interactions that occur between species involve the development of mutually beneficial relationships. These relationships may be exclusive or general in nature. The relationship between plants and animal pollinators is an example of a general mutualistic relationship. The animals depend on the plants for food and the plants depend on the animals for pollination or seed dispersal. The relationship between the fig wasp and the fig tree is an example of an exclusive coevolutionary mutualistic relationship. Female wasps of the family Agaonidae lay their eggs in some of the flowers of specific fig trees. These wasps disperse pollen as they travel from flower to flower. Each species of fig tree is usually pollinated by a single wasp species that only reproduces and feeds from a specific species of fig tree. The wasp-fig relationship is so intertwined that each depends exclusively on the other for survival. Mimicry Mocker Swallowtail.   AYImages/iStock/Getty Images Plus Coevolutionary commensalistic interactions include relationships where one species benefits while the other is not harmed. An example of this type of relationship is Batesian mimicry. In Batesian mimicry, one species mimics the characteristic of another species for protective purposes. The species that is being mimicked is poisonous or harmful to potential predators and thus mimicking its characteristics provides protection for the otherwise harmless species. For example, scarlet snakes and milk snakes have evolved to have similar coloration and banding as venomous coral snakes. Additionally, mocker swallowtail (Papilio dardanus) species of butterfly mimic the appearance of butterfly species from the Nymphalidae family that eat plants containing noxious chemicals. These chemicals make the butterflies undesirable for predators. Mimicry of Nymphalidae butterflies protects Papilio dardanus species from predators that can not differentiate between the species.  Ã‚   Sources Ehrlich, Paul R., and Peter H. Raven. Butterflies And Plants: A Study In Coevolution. Evolution, vol. 18, no. 4, 1964, pp. 586–608., doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1964.tb01674.x.  Penn, Dustin J. Coevolution: Host–Parasite. ResearchGate, www.researchgate.net/publication/230292430_Coevolution_Host-Parasite.  Schmitz, Oswald. Predator and Prey Functional Traits: Understanding the Adaptive Machinery Driving Predator-prey Interactions. F1000Research vol. 6 1767. 27 Sep. 2017, doi:10.12688/f1000research.11813.1Zaman, Luis, et al. Coevolution Drives the Emergence of Complex Traits and Promotes Evolvability. PLOS Biology, Public Library of Science, journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id10.1371/journal.pbio.1002023.

The Benefits of Legalization Marijuana Essay - 1124 Words

The Benefits of Legalization Marijuana There are many political groups and religious group that ague against the legalization of marijuana. They state that there are no benefits in legalizing the drugs but researches and economist disagree with that report. There are many benefits in the legalization. The first one is the enormous affect that it could have on the economy growth of the United States. A Harvard University professor of economic Jeffrey Miron , has crunched the numbers and he’s determined that legalizing marijuana would save $7.7 billion annually in money spent on enforcing dope laws. (www.1st marijuanagrowerspage.com) and if the fed taxed marijuana at the rate comparable to cigarettes and boozes, another 6.2 billion†¦show more content†¦The state’s tax collectors estimate the bill would bring in about $1.3 billion a year in much needed revenue, offsetting some of the billions of dollars in service cuts and spending reductions outlined in the recently approved state budget. (www.time .com) The second benefit of legalization of marijuana is the agriculture advantages of growing it. Growing an outdoor marijuana crop has been the favored method over the years, because marijuana seems to grow better without as much attention when in its natural habitat. (www.1stmarijuanagrowerpage.com Marijuana’s legalization would simply the development of the hemp as a valuable and diverse agricultural crop in the United States, including its development as a new bio-fuel to reduce carbon emissions. Canada and European countries have managed to support legal hemp cultivation without legalizing marijuana, but in the United States opposition to legal marijuana remains the biggest obstacle to development of industrial hemp as a valuable agricultural commodity. As Us energy policy continues to embrace and promote the development of bio-fuels as an alternative to oil dependency and a way to reduce carbon emissions, it is all the more important to develop industrial hemp as bio-fuel source- especially since use of hemp stalks as a fuel sources will not increase demand and prices for food, such as corn. (The top ten reasons Marijuana should be legal)Show MoreRelatedThe Benefits Of Marijuana Legalization2273 Words   |  10 PagesRobert Lally ENL 213 April 10, 2016 The Benefits of Marijuana Legalization I. Introduction Today we are living in a marijuana revolution. States are legalizing marijuana for medical purposes as well as for recreational purposes. Medical marijuana is now legal in twenty-three states and the District of Columbia, but marijuana still cannot be considered authentic medicine in this country. This is due in part to the lack of research on the benefits of marijuana as a medicine. The federal governmentRead MoreThe Social Benefits of Legalization of Marijuana1459 Words   |  6 Pagesgive the definition of Marijuana that is important for my research. â€Å"Marijuana is a mixture of leaves, stems and flowering tops of the hemp plant.†(Marijuana, 317). Today in most countries soft narcotics and especially narcotics like marijuana are illegal. Marijuana is a misunderstood drug that is thought of as dangerous but it isn’t. Because of people’s ignorance and gullibility marijuana has become illegal for all the wrong reasons and should be re-examined for legalizatio n. Society today cannotRead MoreThe Benefits of Marijuana Legalization Essay1323 Words   |  6 PagesMarijuana has been a part of American culture for over one hundred years. It has been vilified, heralded as a miracle drug by supporters, branded a gateway drug by opponents and proposed as paper, rope and a myriad of other possibilities. Yet for all the support both for and against it marijuana still remains illegal, widely used, fiercely prosecuted and barely studied. Legalized marijuana in the United States can be controlled and profitable industry by using low taxes, regulation and mirroringRead MoreEconomic Benefits of the Legalization of Marijuana Essay1306 Words   |  6 PagesThe Economic Benefits of the Legalization of Marijuana Crimes related to marijuana have gotten out of control in our society. With more than 750,000(MPP.org) people arrested annually on charges related to marijuana its clear that a change needs to occur. A clear choice would be to crack down on the sale and manufacture of marijuana, but the smarter choice would be to legalize it. There are many economic benefits to the legalization of marijuana. The economic benefits that producersRead MoreThe Benefits Of Legalization Of Marijuana Are Endless Essay example900 Words   |  4 PagesThe myths about marijuana are endless and almost all are, false. Over the years people have come to believe many things about how marijuana affects your body and mind. Many other people believe that marijuana is more harmful then tobacco. People believe that â€Å"pot† kills the brain cells in the parietal lobe and the cerebellum. The brain is almost completely unharmed in the smoking of cannabis. Another rumor is about how your body reacts to the cannabis in your system and the harm that it causes. TheRead MoreLegalization of Marijuana: the financial, medical, social, and political benefits1349 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Brandon Smith Professor Gregor ENGL 1102 21 April 2014 Legalization of Marijuana: the financial, social, medical, and political benefits. The legalization of marijuana has been a topic of debate for many years. This may be because of the cultural diversity that the United States of America is known for. Recently, bills were passed in Colorado and Washington to implement the legalization and regulation of recreational marijuana use. These events along with the ever growing popularity of theRead MoreArgumentative Essay On Legalization Of Marijuana901 Words   |  4 PagesThe legalization of Marijuana is a topic that has been discussed for many years. It has had many support as well as opposition. This topic has caused a lot of controversy over the years. In today’s society the amount of marijuana or cannabis that is being consumed is, for the most part, consumed by teens and adults. Although marijuana is an illegal drug, that does not stop people from getting a hold of it. The use of marijuana can be for many reasons such as, socializing, obtaining a high, escapingRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1232 Word s   |  5 PagesIntroduction The possession, use, cultivation, transportation, and sale of marijuana are illegal under the federal law in the United States. However, the federal government announced that states are allowed to pass a law to legalize marijuana for medical and recreational use, provided that they develop a system to regulate the activities. Under the Controlled Substances Act, passed in 1970, Marijuana is classified as a substance of schedule 1, the highest listing under the legislation. The classificationRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1601 Words   |  7 Pagesuse of Marijuana is considered illegal in most of the states of the United States. Washington, Oregon, Colorado and Alaska legalized the use of Marijuana for medical and recreational purposes. Montana, Nevada, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Minnesota, Michigan, Illinois, New York, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Maine, Rhode Island, Delaware, New Jersey and Hawaii have legalized Marijuana for medical purposes o nly, the rest of the states have no laws legalizing marijuana (Governing)Read MoreEssay about Should We Legalize Marijuana in Canada?1081 Words   |  5 PagesTo Legalize or to Not Legalize: The Debate Behind Marijuana in Canada The legalization of marijuana is an issue that consistently discussed and debated, not only in North America, but throughout the entire world. Despite being illegal in every country, marijuana remains the most widely used illicit drug in the world. The popularity of this drug is the cause for the continuous legalization debate, resulting in various legislations pertaining to the consumption of the substance. Every country has

Class in America Free Essays

Mantsios Class in America In Mantsios article â€Å"Class in America† he states that Americans hold beliefs that blind them to social classes, citizens in America have four myths they use to ensure talk about the classes never take place. America has the largest gap between rich and poor in the world, and the lower class has no means to an end they can’t afford health care or quality education. The upper class avoids talk about social class the most; wealthy people don’t want to admit that they are better off than others. We will write a custom essay sample on Class in America or any similar topic only for you Order Now While the lower class sees how much better off others are than them, but they still don’t like to label themselves. I agree with Mantsios that most Americans avoid talk about classes although I am not one of them. Also I would agree there are myths that this country was founded on that may have at one point been true, but not anymore. As for Mantsios’s opinion on health care and education I would have to disagree, although many lower class Americans do not get the education and health care they need to survive I was not one of them. Mantsios States Americans avoid talk about classes. Americans avoid phrases like upper class, middle class and lower class because it’s an ugly truth about American society. Those terms are not in Americans vocabulary, unlike the rest of the world. Both the lower class and upper class avoid using class distinctions. When I was in high school I had a friend whose parents were very well off. I have tried to talk to my friend about the wealth of his parents. My friend won’t admit his parents are wealthy and he thinks that everyone is as well off as his family. His father owns a landscaping company where my friend works in the summers when he isn’t in college. I’ve worked for my friend’s father before for about six months and then I was laid off when the economy hit the peak of the recession. My friend, his brother and I were the only white people his father had working for him the rest were Mexican and barely spoke English. I felt like my friend’s mother looked down on me because her husband’s employee and instead of being in college I was working for him. This feeling I got from my friends mom wasn’t just from working for their company. The entire time I’ve been their son’s friend which has been since first grade, I’ve felt small in their eyes like I wasn’t good enough to be friends with him. In Mantsios’s article he says there are four myths that Americans believe to ake sure talks about class never take place. These myths are that our country is classless, that we are mostly middle class, America is slowly becoming better off and everyone has an equal chance to succeed. If someone pays attention they can see the classes all around them. Each state has a minimum wage that the country’s lower class usually i s stuck barely making a living, and barely surviving because of the low wage. The upper class consists of business owners and huge company executives. These people are very well off and have everything they want and need while the lower class suffers. With an economy like Americas, the poor is getting worse off every year. The fact is America has the largest gap between rich and poor in the world. This gap is the largest it’s ever been and shows no sign of improving its steadily getting worse. The lower class is the biggest contributor to the nation’s unemployment rate, because their jobs depend on the economy to keep working. The lower class has to work extremely hard to work up the class ladder. Working class citizens have nothing they need to succeed while the upper class has everything they want in life. Another one of Mantsios’s main points is that the lower class has a high chance of health issues and a low chance of quality education. In this Article Mantsios sites Richard De Lone, He states that SAT scores strongly depend on the wealth of the students’ parents. The more wealthy the parents the better score the student got on the SATs. If the income of a family was over a hundred thousand then the students averaged a score of 1130 on their SAT. I would have to say I was not one of these Students my family was poor, but I got a good education and feel that I have a wealth of knowledge. Growing up in a lower class family my mother was barely able to pay the bills. My father left my mother when I was fourteen. So she was forced to provide for my siblings and me on her school bus driver salary. My mother had the best health benefits a job provides, her children never went without healthcare. I will say the majority of lower class family’s do not have this luxury, it depends on the job. My siblings and I have also had a quality education because my mother researched the school districts in our area before deciding where to enroll her kids. The lower class can get a quality education we just have to be determined to work hard. In order to get a college education as a lower class citizen I have to work a full time job while going to school full time. I have a wonderful role model my mother got her bachelor’s degree while working to full time jobs one graveyard and one during the day while going to school full time. If she can do that then I can’t disappoint her all she’s ever wanted for her children was a better life. The government provides financial aid, but it isn’t enough to live on while going to school. I have to utilize every free moment I have to complete my assignments, because of that I don’t have any free time. College is my only shot at moving up the class ladder of America. Americans Don’t want to believe the US is a class based society because of the myths that this country was founded on. The upper class gets everything they need, top of the line health care and education. America is not a middle class country the gap between upper class and lower class is getting bigger with each year. With an economy in the toilet the poor are getting worse off and the rich are getting better off. Success in America isn’t equal in America it’s not what you know it’s how much money you’ve got and who you know that matters. The gap between rich and poor in America is eleven to one the largest in the world, japans gap is only four to one. The reality is the poor have a higher chance of health issues and low chance of a quality education because they have no means to help themselves. Mantsios, Gregory. â€Å"Class in America. †Ã‚  Ã‚  The Norton Field Guide to Writing with Readings. 2nd  ed. Ed. R. Bullock M. D. Goggin. New York, NY:   Norton, 2010. 697-717. Print. How to cite Class in America, Essay examples Class in America Free Essays Avoidance of speaking about classes is something that most Americans practice. Most people refer to race, ethnic group, or geographic location. Sometimes people refer to identifying themselves through their employer. We will write a custom essay sample on Class in America or any similar topic only for you Order Now Americans are aware of class differences but the terminology seems to have been removed from popular culture. Our society is intrigued by the rich and famous. They are not rich, because we seem to be poor. Social commentators try to obscure the class structure and deny exploitation. What influences from class differences impact people’s lives? There are four myths in the United States. The first myth is that the United States is a classless society. Classes mean nothing in today’s society. We are equal in the eyes of the law, and health care and education is provided regardless of economic standing or classes. The second myth is that we are a middle-class nation. We are a consumer society. The third myth is that we are all becoming richer. The global economy has brought previous prosperity to most Americans. The fourth myth is that everyone has an equal chance to succeed. In America, anyone can become a millionaire; it is just being in the right place at the right time. These myths bring up many questions of class differences and their changes. The wealthiest one percent of Americans own over one-third of all consumer durables. Three-quarters of one percent of the adult population earn more than $1 million dollars annually. Prosperity is alive but this abundance is in contrast to poverty that is prevalent in the U. S. One in eight Americans live below the poverty line. Among the poor, there are over 2. million homeless. One in every five children under the age of six lives in poverty. One third of the American population lives at one extreme or the other. The level of inequality in the U. S. is getting higher. According to the census data, the gap between the rich and the poor in the U. S. is the highest since 1947 when the government began collecting data. Four out of five households saw their net worth fall between 1992 and the year 2000. The U. S. population occupy opposite ends of the spectrum when it comes to wealth. Government tax olicies and the weakening of labor unions have led to these inequalities between the rich and the poor. The dress-down environment has made it harder and harder to tell the difference in income levels. Life style is another factor to consider. Differences in class is also determined by whether you live in the same city, how motivated you are, how hard you work, and whether you are black or white. Lower-class standing is related to higher rates of infant mortality, arthritis, disabilities mental illness and heart disease, just to name a few. It is also a fact that the lower one’s class standing the higher the death rate. The lower your class standing, the more difficult it is to secure housing for yourself. It is also known that the higher the standard of living for children, the higher grade probability. Test scores still correlate with family income. It is also known that there is a positive correlation between class and educational achievement. Students with families from the upper-class are twice as likely to get training beyond high school. The odds of getting into college have improved for the bottom quarter of the population in the U. S. But, the chances of completing the education have deteriorated. Leaps from rags to riches are extremely rare. Equal opportunities are not a norm for all Americans. Inheritance laws ensure a larger portion of success in the offspring of the wealthy in the U. S. People do not choose to be poor. They are found to have limited opportunities due to being denied through our social and economic system. Gender and racial domination is another factor to consider. Women are affected by sexism no matter what profession they choose. Women face discrimination and male domination. Women and minority races are dealing with institutional forces that hold them down because of gender and the color of their skin. Women and minorities are differentiated along class lines. Men, whether they are black or white, have privileges because they are men in our sexist society. Poverty varies between race and gender. Female and nonwhite increase chances of poverty in our society. There are many determining factors that cross class boundaries in the U. S. Race, ethnic groups, or geographic locations are just a few factors that affect classes in our society. There seems to be a decreasing number of middle-class Americans. More and more people are either rich or poor. Do these class differences have an impact on the way we live? Does every American have an equal opportunity to succeed? The contrast between rich and poor is becoming sharper and sharper. One third of the American population lives at one spectrum or the other. Net worth is falling in our American economy. Enormous differences are occurring in our economic standings of our citizens. With all this being said, America has the best dressed poverty in the world. This is due to mass marketing and shifts in the nation’s economy. Dress-down environments also contribute to this fact. Life style, motivation, skin color, and education have big factors in how we Americans live. Sexism has a great impact on women in our society. Where is it all going to end? There was a time in my lifetime that between my husband and me we didn’t make $20,000. People can change their situations if they have the motivation and education to do so. Doing the same thing day to day and expecting a different result is the definition of insanity. I have worked all my life and have come across many different sexism situations. This includes sexual harassment. The middle-class my family once was has deteriorated due to our government. Housing levels have fallen yet prices seem to increase every year. Jobs have been sent overseas. Jobs have been lost and more people are out of work now than ever before. American lives are constantly changing but these changes have not been good changes over the past decade. Jobs need to be brought back to America and foreign trade needs to be addressed. We need to bring back our middle America. How to cite Class in America, Papers

Organizational Theory free essay sample

The term classical refers to work done by a group of economists in the 18th and 19th centuries. The word NEO meaning , much of this work was developing theories about the way markets and market economists and they are generally termed neo-classical economists. The neo-classical school is the mainstream school of thought in economics, deriving from the work of the marginalists, who defined value in relation to scarcity and regarded the balance of supply and demand as determining equilibrium prices. The neo-classical approach was set out by Alfred Marshall in his principles of economics, which was published in 1890. Human Relations Theories Elton Mayo: Hawthorns studies Where Classical theorists were concerned with structure and mechanics of organisations, the theorists of human relations were, understandably, concerned with the human factors. The foci of human relations theory is on motivation, group motivation and leadership. At the centre of these foci are assumptions about relationship between employer and employee. Best summarised by Schein (1965) or Elton Mayo they were academic, social scientists their emphasis was on human behaviour within organisations they stated that peoples needs are decisive factors in achieving an organisations effectiveness they were descriptive and attempted to be predictive of behaviour in organisations A motive = a need or driving force within a person. The process of motivation involves choosing between alternative forms of action in order to achieve some desired end or goal Alternative forms of action of motivation depend on a managers assumptions about his/her subordinates: Prime Motivators Theory 1. Rational- economic man Self interest and maximisation of gain Basis of Classical, especially, Taylor/Scientific theory 2. Social man Social need, being part of a group Basis of Mayo 3. Self actualising man Self-fulfilment of individual Maslow, Likert, McGregor, Argyris, Herzberg 4. Complex man Depends on individual, group, task Systems approach Elton Mayo : Hawthorne Studies The ground-breaking Hawthorne studies carried out in the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company (USA) 1927 32. Stage 1 (1924 -27) Study of the physical surroundings (lighting level) on productivity of workers. Control group and experimental group previously had similar productivity before study began Control Group = constant lighting level Experimental Group = varied lighting level Result Both groups productivity increased even when experimental group was working in dim light Product leader called Mayo and colleagues to explain Stage 2 (1927 29) Relay assembly room stage Still analysing effect of physical surroundings (rest, pauses, lunch break duration, length of working week) on output Result Output increased even when worsening conditions Hypothesis was now that it was the attitudes of subjects at work and not the physical conditions. This gave rise to the Hawthorne Effect employees were responding not so much to changes in the environment as to the fact they were the centre of attention a special group. Stage 3 (1928 30) A Total of 20,000 interviews were collected with the workers on employee attitudes to working conditions, their supervision and their jobs. Stage 4 (1932) Bank winning observation room This time the new subjects (14 men) put in separate room for six months Result Productivity restricted due to pressure from peers to adopt a slower rate to circumvent company wages incentive scheme to generally adopt own group rules and behaviour Advantages  first real attempt to undertake genuine social research in industrial setting individuals cannot be treated in isolation, but function with group members that individual motivation did not primarily lie in monetary or physical condition, but in need and status in a group the strength of informal (as opposed to formal) groups demonstrated a behaviour of wor kers (formal supervisors were powerless in Stage 4) it highlighted need for supervisors to be sensitive and cater for social needs of workers within the group Disadvantages from 1930s -1950s some doubt was cast on the increased applicability of these theories to every day working life Neo-Human Relations Theory This group were social psychologists who developed more complex theories: Maslow McGregor (theory X and theory Y) Likert Argyris Maslow is often-quoted still today, having developed a seminal theory of the needs of human beings. Herzbergs and McGregors neo-human relations theories both focus on motivation and leadership, but their theories are, as we shall see, very different. In this group we find a particular focus on human motivation including: satisfaction incentive intrinsic Maslow (1943) 1. This psychologist, from his studies, proposed a hierarchy of human needs building from basic needs at the base to higher needs at the top. 2. Maslow made assumptions that people need to satisfy each level of need, before elevating their needs to the next higher level e. g. a hungry persons need is dominated by a need to eat (i. e survival), but not to be loved, until he/she is no longer hungry. 3. Today the focus in most Western societies is on the elements towards the top of Maslows hierarchy in which work environments and jobs (including having a job and the satisfaction or otherwise such jobs provide have become typical features. Notably the attainment of self-esteem and, at the very top of the hierarchy, what Maslow calls self-actualisation fundamentally the synthesis of worth, contribution and perceived value of the individual in society. Advantages Managers can/should consider the needs and aspirations of individual subordinates. Disadvantages The broad assumptions in 2 above have been disproved by exceptions e. g. hungry, ill artist working in a garret. Empirical research over the years has not tended to support this theoretical model. Regarding monetary reward, sometimes beyond certain level of pays (e. g. consultant) other things become more important than another ? 1000 a year e. g. working conditions, boss, environment etc. McGregor (Theory X and Theory Y) Managers were perceived by McGregor, whose theories are still often quoted, to make two noticeably different sets of assumptions about their employees. Theory X (essentially scientific mgt) Theory Y Lazy Like working Avoid responsibility Accept/seek responsibility Therefore need control/coercion Need space to develop imagination/ingenuity Schein type: rational economic man Schein type: self-actualising man Advantages Identifies two main types of individual for managers to consider and how to motivate. Disadvantages Only presents two extremes of managerial behaviour. 200 engineers and accountants were asked to recall the times/occasions when they experienced satisfactory and unsatisfactory feeling about their jobs. Later this also involved manual and clerical staff similar results claimed: Herzberg showed two categories of findings: Motivators factors giving rise to satisfaction Hygiene factors factors giving rise to dissatisfaction Important Motivators Important Hygienes Achievement Company policy and recognition Recognition Supervision the technical aspects Work itself Salary Responsibility Interpersonal relations – supervision Advancement Working conditions Advantages Herzbergs work led to a practical way to improve motivation, which had, up to that point, been dominated by Taylorism (salary, wages). In particular job enrichment programs mushroomed. The aim of these was to design work and work structures to contain the optimum number of motivators. This approach counters the years of Taylorism, which sought to break down work into its simplest components and to remove responsibility from individuals for planning and control. Disadvantages There remain doubts about Herzbergs factors applicability to non-professional groups, despite the fact that some of his later studies involved the clerical and manual groups. The numbers were in these categories though were small and many researchers still argue about the results in these groups. Social scientists argue about the validity of his definition of job satisfaction Likert Described new patterns of management based on the behaviours of managers Four main patterns: 1. Exploitative authoritative where power and direction come from the top downwards, where threats and punishment are employed, where communication is poor and teamwork non-existent. Productivity is typically mediocre Rational economic man 2. Benevolent authoritative is similar to the above but allows some upward opportunities for consultation and some delegation. Rewards may be available as well as threats. Productivity is typically fair to good but at cost of considerable absenteeism and turnover Weaker version of rational economic man 3. Consultative where goals are set or orders issued after discussion with subordinates, where communication is upwards and downwards and where teamwork is encouraged, at least partially. Some involvement of employees as a motivator social man 4. Participative group is reckoned by many to be the ideal system. Under this system, the keynote is participation, leading to commitment to the organisations goals in a fully co-operative way. Communication is both upwards, downwards and lateral. Motivation is obtained by a variety of means. Productivity is excellent and absenteeism and turnover are low Self actualising man (see also McGregor: theory Y) Another useful way of looking at this is that (1) is a highly task-orientated management style, whereas (4) is a highly people-orientated management style. Advantages Essentially Likerts work gives more alternatives in the spectrum between Theory X and Theory Y of McGregor Disadvantage criticised for being based more on theory than empirical practice. Therefore not widely accepted by practising managers. Argyris Studied the needs of people and the needs of organisation. He felt that classical models of organisation promoted immaturity (see below). He felt that it was important to understand the needs of people and integrate them with needs of organisation. Only in this way, he said, can employees become co-operative rather than defensive or aggressive Characteristics of Employee. There are two significant implications of contingency theory: if there is no one best way, then even apparently quite similar organisations, for example, two nearby colleges, may choose significantly different structures and still survive, be reasonably successful in achieving their missions, and so on if different parts of the same organisation are influenced in different ways by the contingencies bearing upon them, then it may be appropriate for them to be structured differently, for example, one university department may have a functional structure, whilst another may have a matrix structure. Examples of contingency theories: Contingency theory of leadership In contingency theory of leadership, the success of the leader is a function of various contingencies in the form of subordinate, task, and/or group variables. The effectiveness of a given pattern of leader behavior is contingent upon the demands imposed by the situation. These theories stress using different styles of leaders hip appropriate to the needs created by different organizational situations. No single contingency theory has been postulated. Some of the theories are:  · Fiedler’s contingency theory: Fiedlers theory is the earliest and most extensively researched. Fiedler’s approach departs from trait and behavioral models by asserting that group performance is contingent on the leader’s psychological orientation and on three contextual variables: group atmosphere, task structure, and leader’s power position.  · Hersey Blanchard’s situational theory This theory is an extension of Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid Model and Reddin’s 3-D management style theory. With this model came the expansion of the notion of relationship and task dimensions to leadership and adds a readiness dimension. Contingency theory of decision making  · Vroom and Yetton’s decision participation contingency theory or the Normative decision theory According to this model, the effectiveness of a decision procedure depends upon a number of aspects of the situation: the importance of the decision quality and acceptance; the amount of relevant information possessed by the leader and subordinates; the likelihood that subordinates will accept an autocratic decision or cooperate in trying to make a good decision if allowed to participate; the amount of disagreement among subordinates with respect to their preferred alternatives. Contingency rules theory  · Smith’s contingency rules theory is an example of a rules approach to persuasion. Smith utilizes the idea of cognitive schemas, expectations about the attributes that a given person or policy will have or expectancies about the consequences of behaving in a particular manner. These schemata function as contingency rules that both shape the way something is viewed and structure behavior. Smith suggests that rules and schemata explain persuasion better than the traditional concept of attitude. According to Smith’s contingency rules theory, rules are used to create responses to persuasive messages. Self-evaluative rules are associated with our self-concept and our image. Adaptive rules are those that will apply effectively in a particular situation – the rules most likely to generate a positive outcome. Behavioral contingency rules are contextual. In some situations, certain consequences are considered and certain rules are activated which guide behavior. In other situations, other rules are activated. External threats and rewards are meaningful only if they apply to one’s personal goals. Conclusion: In conclusion, it has to be restated that management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment for the purpose of efficiently accomplishing Selected aims. Managers carry out the functions of planning, organizing, staffing, Leading, and controlling. Managing is an essential activity at all organizational Levels. However, the managerial skills required vary with organizational levels. Although women have made progress in obtaining responsible positions, they still have a long way to go. The goal of all managers is to create a surplus and to be productive by achieving a favorable output-input ration within a specific time period with due consideration for quality. Productivity implies effectiveness (achieving of objectives) and efficiency (using the least amount of resources). Managing as practice is art; organized knowledge about management is science. The development of management theory involves the development of concepts, principles, and techniques. There are many theories about management, and each contributes something to our knowledge of what managers do. Each approach or theory has its own characteristics and advantages as well as limitations. The operational, or management process, approach draws on each â€Å"school† and systematically integrates them. Finally, the organization is an open system that operates within and interacts with the environment. The systems approach to management includes inputs from the external environment and from claimants, the transformation process, the communication system, external factors, outputs, and a way to reenergize the system. No doubt, a manager who makes serious attempts to translate theory into reality is bound to increase productivity more than a manager who chooses to use the ‘fire brigade’ or trial and error approach

The Nitration of Methyl Benzoate free essay sample

Introduction The purpose of this experiment is to synthesize methyl nitrobenzoate from methyl benzoate, concentrated HNO3, and concentrated H2SO4 via an electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction. Reaction Procedures/ Observations Use a 50 ml beaker to cool about 6 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid in an ice water bath. Weigh the vial containing about 3 grams of methyl benzoate and add it to the cooled sulfuric acid. Next pour about 2 ml of sulfuric acid to the nitric acid in the vial and allow for it to cool. After mixture is cooled add it drop wise to the cooled sulfuric acid/methyl benzoate mixture making sure the temperature remains under 15 degrees Celsius. Allow mixture to cool to room temperature and pour it over 25 g of ice and allow the ice to melt. Next isolate the product by vacuum filtration and weigh the crude product. Recrystallize the product from equal weight of methanol. Place mixture in water bath and heat it up so the solid dissolves. We will write a custom essay sample on The Nitration of Methyl Benzoate or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Next allow for solution to cool to room temperature and perform vacuum filtration again and then wash the solid with methanol. Allow product to air dry for a week. The following week weigh the clean vial and cap and transfer the product to vial and weigh it. Finally, determine the melting point. Results and conclusions In this experiment 5. 9 ml of sulfuric acid, 2. 1 ml of nitric acid, and 1. 8 ml of sulfuric acid was used. The amount of methyl benzoate obtained was 2. 972 grams, and 3. 90 grams of methyl m- nitrobenzoate product was also acquired. The limiting reagent for this electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction is methyl benzoate. It yields the least amount of methyl nitrobenzoate in this reaction, and therefore is the limiting reagent. The electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction between methyl benzoate and a nitrating solution of sulfuric and nitric acids was successful and yielded methyl m-nitrobenzoate. The percent yield of the recrystallized product was 93%. The observed melting point of 68 70Â °C was fairly close to the literature melting point of 78 – 80Â °C for a meta substituted product. Therefore, my product is a meta-product. The meta-product forms because the ortho- and para- products both have very unstable resonance forms with two positive charges next to each other. The two positive charges right next to one another causes the resonance forms to be unstable, so ortho- and para- substituted products do not form in this reaction.